Rabbi Dr. Shlomo Pereira is the director of adult education at Chabad of Virginia, Richmond, and the founding director of the RVA—Jewish Studies Center. He is the author or co-author of several books, including “Jewish Voices from Portugal” and "Jewish Ethics from Portugal,” and lectures extensively around the world on the history of Jews from the Iberian Peninsula and the Sephardic World in general. He is also a university professor and a widely published economist.
Rabbi Pereira can be reached at shlomo@chabadofva.org.
1781
The Travelogue of R. Chaim Yosef David Azulai:
A Window into the 18th Century Jewish World
Rabbi Chaim Yosef David Azulai (1724-1806), better known by his acronym "Chida," stands as one of the most fascinating figures in Jewish history. Born in Jerusalem into a prominent Sephardic family, he became not only a prolific Torah scholar but also one of the most well-traveled rabbis of his times. His extensive journeys as an emissary for the Jewish communities of Palestine produced one of the most important Jewish travel diaries of the 18th century: Ma'agal Tov [The Good Journey]. This remarkable travelogue provides an invaluable first-hand account of Jewish life across Europe and North Africa during a pivotal period in Jewish history. The Chida's travels were not undertaken solely for personal enrichment or scholarly curiosity. They served a vital communal purpose. In 1753, at the age of 29, he was selected by the Jewish community of Palestine to serve as their emissary to diaspora Jewish communities. His mission was twofold: to raise desperately needed funds for the impoverished Jewish institutions in the Holy Land and to strengthen connections between the Jews of Palestine and the diaspora communities. The Chida embarked on two major fundraising expeditions that would span decades of his life. His first journey, from 1753 to 1757, took him through Italy, German lands, and London—a remarkable feat of travel in the 18th century. The second expedition, from 1772 to 1778, took him to Tunisia, Italy, France, and the Netherlands. According to some records, he may have undertaken a third journey in 1781. In total, Chida visited 148 cities during his first mission and 156 cities during his second, covering thousands of miles across continents. Ma'agal Tov represents far more than a simple travel log. It is a rich tapestry of observations, experiences, and insights that illuminate Jewish life in the 18th century. The travelogue was compiled from small notebooks that the Chida carried with him during his journeys, writing entries that ranged from single sentences to several pages. The writing style is extraordinarily dense and allusive, featuring rhyming prose alternating with cascades of biblical and rabbinic references. The diary reveals Chida's remarkable personality—simultaneously erudite and humble, curious and devout. Throughout his travels, he consistently attributed the honor he received to his role as a representative of the Holy Land rather than to his merits. His accounts create a narrative that is both uniquely engaging and profound. One of the most valuable aspects of Ma'agal Tov is its detailed documentation of the diverse Jewish communi%ties the Chida encountered. His experiences challenged contemporary assumptions about Jewish unity and solidarity. Rather than finding universal bonds of trust and common ethnic identity among Jews, the Chida frequently encountered suspicion, cultural barriers, and theological differences. The travelogue reveals the complex dynamics between Sephardic and Ashkenazic communities. In a certain case, the Chida initially appeared to local rabbis as just "a beggar seeking to make a buck.” He was accepted only after demonstrating his profound learning through discussions of Ashkenazic halachic works. These encounters illustrate the cultural tensions and mutual misunderstandings that existed between different Jewish communities in the 18th century. Beyond its Jewish content, Ma'agal Tov provides fascinating glimpses into 18th-century European society through the eyes of a learned Oriental Jew. The Chida recorded his wonder at European technological achievements, architectural marvels, and cultural institutions. His visit to the Tower of London, where he observed lions, a century-old eagle, and various exotic animals, exemplifies his curious and observant nature. The diary also documents the Chida's encounters with European royalty and nobility. His meeting with King Louis XVI at Versailles, where the monarch was so impressed by the Chida's stately appearance that he inquired which country's ambassador this visitor represented, demonstrates the respect the Chida commanded even in the highest circles of European society. A significant aspect of Chida's travels was his systematic examination of Hebrew manuscripts and rare books in libraries across Europe. This was a serious research endeavor that would later inform his major bibliographical work, Shem HaGedolim [Names of the Sages]. The Chida visited printing presses, private collections, and major libraries, including the Royal Library in Paris, where he marveled at the extensive collection of Jewish books. His encounters with manuscripts often yielded important textual discoveries. In one instance, he examined a complete Talmud written on parchment with ancient script, noting numerous textual variants that differed from standard editions. These scholarly pursuits demonstrate how Chida's emissary missions served the dual purposes of fundraising for the community and advancing Jewish scholarship and the connection between the Jewish communities in Palestine and the Diaspora.
1665
Gaza and the Shabbatean Movement:
From Messianic Epicenter to Historical Memory
Gaza was a relatively modest city under Ottoman rule in the 1660s, home to a small but vibrant Jewish community. The city’s transformation began with the arrival of R. Nathan ben Elisha Chaim Ashkenazi (c.1643-1680), better known as R. Nathan of Gaza. Born in Jerusalem and steeped in the mystical teachings of Lurianic Kabbalah, R. Nathan settled in Gaza in 1663 after marrying into a local merchant family. His reputation as a visionary and spiritual authority quickly spread, drawing seekers and scholars to his side. The pivotal moment came in 1665, during the festival of Shavuot. R. Nathan, after a period of intense mystical meditation, experienced a vision that convinced him that Shabbatai Tzvi (1626-1676)—a charismatic and controversial figure from Smyrna who had settled in Jerusalem in 1663—was the long-awaited Messiah. This was not merely a private revelation. R. Nathan made his proclamation public, declaring Shabbatai Tzvi worthy of being king over Israel. The announcement, delivered during the all-night Torah study that marks Shavuot, electrified the local community and, through R. Nathan’s letters and emissaries, quickly spread throughout the rest of the Land of Israel and the rest of the Jewish world. R. Nathan’s declaration had a profound impact on the spiritual geography of Judaism. Traditionally, Jerusalem was the unrivaled center of Jewish religious life and messianic expectation. Yet, R. Nathan boldly proclaimed that Gaza, not Jerusalem, was now the sacred city at the heart of redemption. This radical shift reflected both the fervor of the moment and the movement’s break with convention. For about a year, Gaza was the nerve center of the most significant Jewish messianic movement of the modern era. R. Nathan’s blend of Lurianic Kabbalah and innovative theology resonated deeply, and his charisma drew followers from across the Ottoman Empire and Europe. Gaza became a magnet for pilgrims, mystics, and ordinary Jews. Its beaches and courtyards hosted gatherings of penitents and visionaries, all hoping to witness the dawn of a new era. The city’s Jewish community swelled with visitors, and Gaza’s name became synonymous with messianic hope. This extraordinary period came to an abrupt end in September 1666. Shabbatai Tzvi, arrested by the Ottoman authorities and faced with execution, chose to convert to Islam. The shock of this apostasy was immediate and devastating. The movement’s foundation—faith in Shabbatai Tzvi as the Messiah—was shattered. Gaza, which had risen so quickly, now faced a profound crisis of faith and identity. R. Nathan of Gaza, the architect of the city’s prominence, initially attempted to salvage the movement. He developed a new theological narrative, arguing that Shabbatai Tzvi's conversion was part of a hidden divine plan: the Messiah had to descend into the realm of impurity (symbolized by Islam) to redeem the world from within. While this explanation maintained the loyalty of some followers, it required secrecy and esoteric interpretation, fundamentally changing the movement's character. Almost immediately, Gaza’s centrality to the Shabbatean movement began to wane. The city’s peripheral location made it ill-suited for the new, clandestine phase of the movement, which now required sophisticated communication networks and theological debate. R. Nathan himself eventually left Gaza, spending his final years traveling and teaching elsewhere in the Ottoman Empire. Meanwhile, the movement’s intellectual and organizational centers shifted to European cities such as Amsterdam, Hamburg, and Salonica. In these cosmopolitan hubs, the Shabbatean movement evolved into a secretive, crypto-religious network. The Dönmeh community in Salonica, for example, outwardly converted to Islam while maintaining Shabbatean beliefs in secret. Gaza, lacking the resources and scholarly communities of these cities, faded from the movement’s forefront. These events deeply shook the local Jewish community. The scandal of Shabbatai Tzvi‘s conversion and the controversial nature of R. Nathan’s post-apostasy teachings caused divisions. Some families left Gaza, while others distanced themselves from messianic speculation. Rabbinical leadership became more conservative, focusing on stability and traditional practice. The messianic episode became a historical memory—preserved in literature and legend, but no longer shaping the city’s daily life.
c. 1550
From Safed to the World:
On the origins and Development of the Kabbalat Shabbat Service
The conceptual foundations of Kabbalat Shabbat [Welcoming Shabbat] trace back to the Talmudic period, specifically to practices recorded in Tractate Shabbat 119a. Two second-century sages established the precedent for welcoming Shabbat. R. Hanina would wrap himself in special garments as the sun set on Friday evening and declare, ‘Come and let us go forth to welcome Queen Shabbat’. Similarly, R. Yannai would don festive clothes and proclaim, ‘Enter, O bride! Enter, O bride!’ These early practices introduced two crucial concepts that would later become central to the Kabbalat Shabbat service: Shabbat as Queen, emphasizing majesty, authority, and reverence, and Shabbat as Bride, emphasizing love, beauty, and intimate relationship. The dual imagery reflected the complex nature of Shabbat as both a divine commandment requiring obedience and a beloved gift inspiring joy and anticipation. Before the 16th-century transformation, Friday evening services were relatively simple. Communities typically recited Psalm 92, ‘A Psalm, A Song for the Sabbath Day’, but had no formal welcoming ceremony. Jewish communities focused their Shabbat preparations on practical matters: completing forbidden work, bathing, donning festive clothes, and preparing special meals. The revolutionary transformation of Kabbalat Shabbat occurred in 16th-century Safed. The expulsion from Spain (1492) and subsequent Portuguese massive forced conversions (1497) displaced thousands of learned Jews throughout the Mediterranean. When Sultan Suleiman, the Magnificent, conquered the Land of Israel from the Mamluks in 1516/7, the Ottoman Empire's tolerant policies enabled a massive influx of Iberian exiles to settle in Safed. This convergence of traumatized yet intellectually sophisticated refugees created an atmosphere of intense messianic expectation and mystical yearning. The Safed Kabbalists developed elaborate outdoor welcoming ceremonies based on their interpretation of the Talmudic precedents. Every Friday evening, as the sun set behind the western mountains, groups of mystics would go to the fields surrounding the city. They would recite psalms, singi mystical hymns, and performe meditative rituals designed to facilitate the descent of the Shechinah [the Divine Presence] into the world. By the latter half of the 16th century, a standardized structure emerged. The service began with six psalms, 95-99 and 29, which correspond to the six days of creation leading to Sabbath. Psalm 95 became the opening invitation, calling the community to collective spiritual elevation. The progression through the psalms represented an ascent through increasingly mystical states culminating in the arrival of Shabbat. The prayer Ana BeKoach [We beg You, with the strength…], attributed to the first-century sage R. Nehunya ben HaKanah, was incorporated as a transitional element. The text consists of seven lines with six words each, forming a 42-letter divine name through its initial letters. The prayer served as a portal between mundane and sacred time, with its seven lines corresponding to the seven days of creation and its mystical letters believed to harness the original energies of Creation. The service's crown piece was Lecha Dodi [Come, My Beloved], composed by R. Shlomo Alkabetz (1505-1584). This poetic masterpiece weaves together biblical verses, mystical imagery, and messianic longings. The poem moves from personal invitation ‘Come, my beloved, to greet the bride’ through theological reflection on divine unity to historical memory of Jerusalem's destruction and finally to the hope for restoration. The ritual choreography became equally important: congregations would turn toward the synagogue entrance for the final stanza, symbolically greeting the arriving Sabbath bride. The service concludes with Psalms 92 and 93, traditional Sabbath psalms that bridge into the regular evening service. Psalm 92 explicitly celebrates Shabbat, while Psalm 93 proclaims divine sovereignty over creation. The Kabbalat Shabbat service embodies important mystical theological concepts. The central metaphor of divine marriage transforms Shabbat from a simple boundary in time into a cosmic event. The Jewish people, collectively serving as the groom, welcome the Shechinah as the bride, in a weekly reenactment of primordial divine unity. The mystical marriage also carries messianic significance, with the Kabbalat Shabbat service becoming a rehearsal for redemption, the ultimate divine-human reunion. Despite its specific origins amongst the mystics of Safed, the Kabbalat Shabbat service achieved remarkable universal acceptance. By the late 17th century, communities throughout the Sephardic and Ashkenazic worlds had fully adopted the service.
1665
R. Nathan of Gaza:
When the false prophet met in Gaza his false messiah
R. Nathan ben Elisha Chaim Ashkenazi, known as R. Nathan of Gaza (c.1643-1680), was born in Jerusalem to a distinguished rabbinical family who had immigrated from Germany and Poland. A prodigy who could recite entire Talmudic tractates by heart, R. Nathan studied under the renowned scholar R. Yaakov Chagiz (1620–1674) at the Beit Yaakov Yeshiva in Jerusalem. His intellectual brilliance was matched by intense spiritual sensitivity and what contemporaries described as rare personal skills: extraordinary concentration, persistence, daring religious thought, and eloquent expression. Around 1663, R. Nathan married the daughter of Samuel Lissabona, a wealthy merchant from Gaza, and relocated there, in what would prove to be a fateful move. In Gaza, R. Nathan deepened his study of Kabbalah, particularly the mystical writings of R. Yitzchak Luria, the Arizal (1534-1572). By this time, he had begun experiencing what he believed were mystical prophetic visions. Soon, he developed a reputation as a spiritual healer. In turn, in 1663, R. Shabbatai Tzvi (1626-1676), a Kabbalist from Smyrna (modern Izmir, Turkey) with known messianic aspirations, had settled in Jerusalem, where his ascetic practices and charismatic personality attracted numerous followers, and his contacts and connections drew a lot of attention. In 1665, on behalf of the Jewish community of Jerusalem and to garner financial support for the city, he traveled to Cairo, a city in which he had previously lived, he knew well, and where he had significant connections. On his return from Cairo and upon reaching Gaza City, Shabbatai Tzvi decided to search for R. Nathan, given his reputation as a spiritual healer. Shabbatai Tzvi hoped to find a cure for a psychological condition he was suffering from. Contemporary sources suggest he suffered from what modern psychiatrists would recognize as bipolar disorder, alternating between periods of deep depression and manic episodes. R. Nathan of Gaza, however, instead of offering therapeutic assistance, shared with him his prophetic visions of Shabbatai Tzvi as the long-awaited Messiah and of himself as the resurrected Prophet Elijah, who was to proclaim the arrival of the Messiah. Through intense discussion and much persuasion, R. Nathan was able to persuade an initially reluctant Shabbatai Tzvi into accepting his messianic mission. The transformation was complete by late May 1665. During Shavuot's prayers in Gaza, R. Nathan publicly announced that the Messiah had appeared to him in a vision, though he would wait until the following summer to reveal the name. On May 31, 1665, Shabbatai Tzvi formally proclaimed himself as the messiah. The messianic news spread like wildfire in Gaza and to other communities in the Land of Israel. R. Nathan initiated a mass movement of repentance, fasting, and ascetic acts to prepare the way for the upcoming redemption. He proclaimed Gaza City the new holy city, replacing Jerusalem in spiritual significance. He abolished the fast days starting with the 17th of Tammuz and the 9th of Av, dates that were now to be celebrated as days of joy. Most rabbis in Israel, however, opposed Shabbatai Tzvi. He was excommunicated and banished from Jerusalem, and he eventually left Israel and returned to Smyrna. Around the same time, R. Nathan sent letters throughout the Ottoman Empire and Europe, announcing that redemption was imminent. The news spread rapidly, and the movement gained momentum with communities from Hamburg to Cairo, from Venice to Aleppo, preparing for the return to the Holy Land. Fatefully, R. Nathan proclaimed that by 1666, the Messiah would peacefully assume the crown of the Ottoman Empire, making the sultan his servant. It is then hardly surprising that in February 1666, Shabbatai Tzvi was arrested by the Ottoman authorities. Accused of sedition, he converted to Islam in September of the same year to save his life. This devastating event, however, was far from the end of the road. R. Nathan of Gaza’s unwavering faith in his vision, combined with his remarkable persuasive abilities, would transform Shabbatai Tzvi from a troubled mystic into the central figure of Judaism's most significant false messianic movement.
1495c.
Rabbi Yosef Saragossi: The Quiet Architect of Safed’s Spiritual Renaissance
Rabbi Yosef Saragossi (1460–1507) hailed from a devout Sephardic family, possibly originating in Zaragoza, in the Crown of Aragon, Spain, or Syracuse, Sicily, an area then also under the Crown of Aragon. The 1492 Alhambra Decree forced him, along with countless other Jews, to leave the Iberian Peninsula. The decree of expulsion was extended to the territories under its sovereignty, including Sicily where it became effective in early 1493. R. Saragossi‘s journey took him through Sicily where he was in 1493, Beirut, where he is identified as being in 1495 on his way to the Land of Israel, and Sidon, where he was invited to stay, and eventually made it to Safed. By the late 1490s he was already in Safed where he devoted himself to Kabbalah and communal leadership. Upon R. Saragossi‘s arrival, Safed’s Jewish population numbered around 300, comprising Berbers, Sephardim, and Moriscos, with no full-time rabbi to guide them. He assumed the role of spiritual leader, revitalizing the community by restoring synagogues, establishing schools, and promoting harmony among diverse Jewish groups. He became the first recorded elected chief rabbi of Safed. His efforts laid the foundation for Safed’s emergence as a major center of Jewish mysticism. In 1504, R. Saragossi and his colleague R. Peretz Colombo made a significant halachic ruling regarding the Sabbatical Year. In one rabbinical dispute, he ruled whether or not 1504 was a such a year. This opinion was accepted in Safed, and prevailed throughout the land in general, over the opposing opinion of the Jerusalem rabbinate.  Aside from his greatness in Torah, R. Saragossi was renowned for his refined character. His influence extended beyond the Jewish community. His respectful engagement with Safed’s Muslim residents earned him widespread admiration. Jews and Muslims alike came to him with their quarrels and trusted him to arrive at a just settlement. Indeed, when R. Saragossi indicated his intention to leave the area, the people of Safed, Jews and Muslims alike, persuaded him to remain, offering him an annual salary, of which the Muslim governor covered two-thirds. Among R. Saragossi’s notable students was David ben Shlomo ibn Zimra (1479-1573), also known as the RaDBaZ, who became a prominent rabbinic authority in Egypt and later returned to Safed contributing to its spiritual growth. R. David ibn Zimra not only became a leading rabbinic authority but also mentored future luminaries like Rabbi Yitzchak Luria (1534-1572), the ARIZAL. As such, R. Saragossi’s leadership played a fundamental role in the development of the next generation of Jewish scholars and mystics.  R. Saragossi was regarded as a holy man. According to tradition, upon visiting the tomb of the Tanna R. Yehudah bar Ilai in Ein Zitun, Elijah the Prophet revealed himself to R. Saragossi, which contributed to his spiritual authority and mystical reputation. As a consequence, R. Saragossi bought a plot of land next to the tomb of this Tanna with the express wish of eventually that being his burial place. R. Yosef Saragossi passed away in 1507 and, indeed, in accordance to his wishes, was buried next to the tomb of the Tanna R. Yehudah bar Ilai, in Ein Zitun. His beautiful blue painted tomb remains an important pilgrimage site to this day. Legend has it that after his passing, the Jewish community of Safed faced an impossible decree from a local Ottoman ruler, who demanded they deliver 500 pure white roosters, a task far beyond their means. In desperation, the community prayed at Saragossi’s grave. According to tradition, he appeared in a dream to a community member and instructed them to bring whatever roosters they had to his gravesite. Miraculously, when they did so, all the birds turned white. This event so impressed the ruler that he rescinded his harsh decrees against the Jews. From that time on, R. Saragossi became popularly known as the Tzaddik HaLavan [White Saint] or Tzaddik HaTarnegolim [The Saint of the Roosters], and his synagogue as the "Beit HaKnesset of R'Yosef, the White Tzadik." R. Saragossi’s leadership during a pivotal era helped transform Safed into a hub of Jewish thought and mysticism. His commitment to education, community building, and interfaith harmony left an indelible mark on Jewish history, inspiring future generations to seek spiritual renewal and unity. He is widely regarded as having had the same type of impact on the development of the Jewish community in Safed in the 16th century as R. Obadiah of Bartenura (c.1445-c.1515) had on the community in Jerusalem.
1532
R. Shlomo Molcho (c. 1500–1532) was born in Portugal, as Diogo Pires, into a New Christian family, Jews who had been forcibly converted to Christianity in 1497. At a very young age, he became a secretary of the royal council and the high court of appeals in the Court of King John III. Things changed dramatically in 1524 after he encountered David Reubeni (c.1490-b.1541), a mysterious Jewish emissary claiming to represent a distant and powerful Jewish kingdom. As part of his mission to promote a military alliance between his kingdom and Christendom to liberate the Land of Israel from Muslim control, David Reubeni was visiting Portugal at the time to secure the financial and logistical support of the Crown. His presence and messianic rhetoric awakened something profound among the Portuguese New Christians, among them Diogo Pires. In a move as radical as it was dangerous, Diogo Pires circumcised himself, adopted the name Shlomo Molcho, and publicly reclaimed his Jewish identity—an act punishable by death. Having caught the attention of his fellow New Christians and the religious authorities, he was forced to flee Portugal. After a long odyssey that included passages through Jerusalem and Safed, he eventually settled in Salonica. There, he joined the yeshiva of R. Yosef Taitatzak (fl. early 16th century), a renowned Kabbalist, who became his mentor. There he also met some of his famous students, such as R. Yosef Karo (1488-1575), future author of the definitive code of Jewish law, the Shulchan Aruch [Prepared Table], and R. Shlomo Alkabetz (1500-1584), the composer of the liturgical poem Lecha Dodi [Come My Beloved]. Both refer to R. Molcho in their writings in a very positive manner. In 1529, while in Salonica, R. Shlomo Molcho began delivering and publishing sermons collectively referred to as Sefer HaMefoar [The Glorious Book]. In these, he warned of apocalyptic upheaval and urged the Jewish people toward repentance and spiritual readiness. Still in 1529, he returned to Italy and is known to have preached in Ancona and Pesaro. In 1530, he had to flee to Rome. There, he predicted natural disasters, including a flood in Rome in October 1530 and an earthquake in Lisbon in January 1531. R. Shlomo Molcho's mystical charisma drew an increasing number of followers and his correct predictions gained him notoriety and respect. With all of this popular success came his increasing belief in the unique messianic role he was destined to play. A key part of this process of redemption would be liberating the Holy Land and restoring Jewish sovereignty. In 1530, R. Shlomo Molcho appeared in Rome before Pope Clement VII. His objective was to attempt to convince the Pope that Jewish redemption was imminent and to obtain permission for the formation of a Jewish army that would free the Land of Israel from Ottoman control. Pope Clement VII was so impressed by R. Shlomo Molcho’s dignity, knowledge, and strange blend of spirituality and diplomacy that he even granted him written approval to give and then publish his sermons. Ultimately, amongst so much attention, R. Shlomo Molcho was arrested and brought to trial by the Inquisition in Rome. He was accused of having renounced his birth faith by converting to Judaism. He was saved through the direct intervention of the Pope. Fleeing to Turkey, R. Shlomo Molcho reunited with David Reubeni in 1532. The two set out to meet Charles V, the hEmperor of the Holy Roman Empire and King of Spain. reportedly proposing the creation of a Jewish military force to help reclaim the Holy Land from the Ottoman Empire and possibly asking him to convert to Judaism. The emperor was unimpressed and both were arrested for heresy or sedition. R. Shlomo Molcho was sentenced to death. In late 1532, he was burned at the stake in Mantua, Italy. After having refused the opportunity to become a Christian once again, he died as a Jewish martyr. R. Shlomo Molcho’s legacy is complex and contested. In traditional circles, he is often viewed with skepticism or discomfort due to his messianic posture and his dangerous political activism. Among Sephardic Kabbalists and Chassidim, however, he retains a great degree of reverence. In secular memory, he is seen as a symbol of spiritual defiance, a man who reclaimed his heritage with courage and vision, and was only silenced by fire.
1835
After having reached great prominence in the 17th century, by the late 18th century, Gaza had a small but active Jewish community. In early 1799, Napoleon led his army in the conquest of the coastal towns of Palestine. When he captured Gaza, he found that most of the Jews, fearing the worst, had fled to Hebron before his arrival. The remaining Jews abandoned the city when they discovered that Napoleon had failed to restrain the French soldiers and local Arabs from abusing the few Jewish residents that had remained in Gaza. Their flight marked the temporary end of a Jewish presence in the area. By 1811, virtually no Jews remained in Gaza, and its main synagogue lay abandoned . Meanwhile, Hebron had a continuous Jewish presence and a historic synagogue named Avraham Avinu (Our Father Abraham) built in 1540. Hebron’s Jewish community welcomed the refugees from Gaza, who, in turn, maintained ties to their former hometown and kept alive the memory of Gaza’s synagogue. In 1835, a turning point came when, during the war between the Ottoman Empire and the rebellious province of Egypt, Ibrahim Pasha, the Egyptian ruler governing the region, ordered the dismantling of the old synagogue building in Gaza. Its stones were to be reused to construct a fortress in nearby Ashkelon. Upon hearing that Gaza’s abandoned synagogue would be destroyed, the former Jewish residents of Gaza now living in Hebron acted swiftly. They rushed back to Gaza and rescued the synagogue’s large decorated wooden doors before the building was torn down. These doors, carved from sycamore wood and adorned with Jewish symbols, would be the only remnants of the Gaza synagogue. According to accounts from the time, the salvaged doors were carried to Hebron in a convoy of carts or camels. In Hebron, they installed the Gaza doors as the entrance doors of the Avraham Avinu Synagogue, effectively giving these artifacts a new home. Contemporary letters and recollections emphasize the significance of this act: even decades later, elders in Hebron recounted how the people of Gaza who came to Hebron brought with them the wooden doors of the ancient synagogue in Gaza and fixed them in the ancient synagogue in Hebron. Historians note a poetic echo in this story: in the Bible, the hero Shimshon is said to have carried the gates of Gaza and deposited them on a hill near Hebron (Judges 16:3). In a spiritual sense, the 19th-century relocation of Gaza’s synagogue doors to Hebron mirrored that ancient event, underscoring how Gaza’s doors found refuge in Hebron. The Gaza synagogue’s doors remained in place at Hebron’s Avraham Avinu Synagogue for roughly 94 years. They not only enhanced the Hebron synagogue’s sanctity but also reminded worshippers of the once-thriving Jewish life in Gaza. During this period, not only did the Jewish community in Hebron continue to flourish, but the Jewish presence in Gaza was renewed without, however, reaching anything close to the heights of its glorious past. Tragically, the story came to a bitter end in 1929. That year, a wave of anti-Jewish riots swept British Mandate Palestine, and Hebron was the site of a horrific massacre. Arab mobs attacked the Jewish community of Hebron in late August 1929, killing 67 Jews and forcing the survivors to flee the city. In the violence, the Avraham Avinu Synagogue – including its precious doors – was ransacked and desecrated. Eyewitnesses later described the synagogue’s interior as wrecked, holy books torn, and furniture smashed. The precious wooden doors from Gaza were lost amid the destruction. It is unclear if they were burned in the attack or stolen afterward, but no trace of them was ever found. Less than a century after being saved, the Gaza synagogue doors met the same fate as the community that had preserved them. For decades after 1929, Hebron had no Jewish community, as under Jordanian rule, Jews were banned from returning to the city. The Avraham Avinu Synagogue stood in ruins – even used as a goat pen and garbage dump in the mid-20th century. When Israel regained control of Hebron in 1967, the synagogue was eventually rebuilt and completed in 1977, but the original Gaza doors were gone forever. Nonetheless, the story of the synagogue doors from Gaza remains significant in Jewish history. It reminds us of the once-flourishing Jewish life in Gaza City and its connections to other Jewish communities in the Land of Israel.
1628
Rabbi Israel ben Moses Najara [c.1550-c.1625], a Kabbalist and a rabbi was best known for his liturgical poems. He was born in Safed, and studied with his father R. Moshe Najara [c. 1510-1581] and his maternal grandfather R. Israel ben Meir di Curiel [1501-1573]. The Najara family came originally from a city of the same name in the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula and left with the Expulsion of 1492. The family settled first in Salonica and eventually in Safed. In 1579, after an attack on the Jews of Safed, the Najara family left and settled in the outskirts of Damascus. After that, R. Israel Najara wandered through various Ottoman towns, eventually settling in Hebron. In 1619, however, an epidemic drove most of the Jews from Hebron to resettle in Gaza. In Gaza City, R. Israel Najara served as the community rabbi and teacher. He died in 1628 in Gaza City and is buried in the city old Jewish cemetery. His son R. Moshe Najara succeeded him as rabbi of the Jewish community of Gaza. R. Israel Najara's fame rests on his prolific output in the fields of sacred poetry and liturgical piyyutim. His poems, numbering hundreds are outstanding in both their of language and in their style, and have achieved wide circulation in the Jewish world. Among R. Israel Najara‘s best known poems are ‘Yah Ribon Olam’ [Lord of the World], a popular Shabbat song in Aramaic, and his ‘Ketubbah LeChag HaShavuot’ [Marriage Contract for Shavuot], a poem comparing the pact between Israel and G-d at Sinai to a wedding ceremony, read in many Sephardic communities on Shavuot. In addition, many of R. Israel's piyyuṭim were incorporated into the Jewish rituals and prayers in places such as Aleppo, Israel, Italy, Morocco, Syria, and Turkey, just to name a few. Interestingly, some of his work was adopted first, into the Karaite rituals and then, into the Shabbatean rituals, in both cases Jewish sectarian groups. Of R. Israel Najara‘s extensive work only a small part has been published, most being still in manuscript form. The earliest publication of his works was ‘Zemirot Israel’ [Songs of Israel], printed in Safed in 1587, and which consists of 109 poems for all the week-days and for Sabbaths, holy days, and occasional ceremonies. This book would have two more editions before the end of the century, the third of which, in Venice in 1599, was a greatly enlarged version with 346 poems, including ‘Meimei Israel’ [Waters of Israel], a series of secular and love poems composed during his youth. In turn, ‘Mesacheket baTevel’ [Rejoicing in the World], was printed in Safed, also in 1587, and is a book of moral instruction on the nothingness of the world. Later publications include ‘Kli Machazik Beracha’ [Tool to Strengthen the Blessing] on grace after meals, ‘Shochatey HaYeladim’ [Ritual Slaughter for Kids], on the laws of ritual slaughter in poetic form composed at the request of his son Moses. In addition, some of his works are not extant, such as ‘Ma'arkot Israel‘ [The Battles of Israel], a commentary to the Torah and ‘Mikveh Israel’ [The Hope of Israel] a set of forty homilies. In addition, of his ‘Pitzey Ohev’ [Wounds of Love] a commentary on Job only a few pages of the final portions are extant. Despite the enormous and long lasting success of R. Israel Najara, his work was not without controversy. He followed in the tradition of the great Jewish poets of the Spanish-Arabic period, but he nevertheless frequently employed original forms and contents influenced by alien styles and melodies. In fact, in his youth he wrote a fair number os secular poetry as well as religious hymns. Furthermore, he seemed to have put some of these poems to then-popular Arabic and Turkish tunes, which apparently he learned in questionable places. Despite these accusations, R. Yitzchak Luria [1534-1572] declared that R. Israel Najara's hymns were listened to with delight in heaven.
1665
R. Moshe Galante, was a prominent scholar who hailed from a distinguished family of Iberian 1492 exiles, who settled in the Kand of Israel in the middle of the 16th century, In 1665, R. Moshe Galante became the de facto leader of Jewry in the Land of Israel, by assuming the position of Chief Sephardic Rabbi of Jerusalem, an official position recognized by the central Ottoman authorities. ——— R. Moshe Galante [1620-1689] was born in Safed in 1620. The Galante family was an aristocratic line of Sephardic Rabbis. The first of the line, R. Mordecai, settled in Tome in the aftermath of the Expulsion from Spain in 1492. Initially, the family name was Angel, but R. Mordechai’s courteous manners won him the surname "Galantuomo" (gentleman), a name which the family would afterwards retained. After his death in 1541 his children emigrated to the Land of Israel, and from that point on the family history became intertwined with the history of the land and the surrounding areas. R. Moshe Galante was the son of R. Yonatan Galante and grandson of R. Moshe Galante [1540-1614], referred to as the elder, who had been a student of R. Yosef Karo [1488-1575]. R. Galante studied in Safed with R. Baruch Barzilai. He later moved to Jerusalem, where he became a distinguished rabbi and head of the yeshiva Beit Yaakov. R. Moshe Galante was considered the greatest of his generation in Torah, wisdom, and piety. He was the leading rabbi of Jerusalem at a time when, tradition has it, the city was home to eighty-seven outstanding Torah scholars. Reputedly, all the Torah scholars in the city bowed to his authority and deferred to his Torah knowledge. Yet, in his great humility, he refused to carry the title of Rabbi of Jerusalem. In fact, he and the other scholars instituted an ordinance to the effect that the title rabbi would not be used in Jerusalem so that no one would have authority over the others. Accordingly, he was only referred to as the Rishon LeTzion. R. Moshe Galante served as the first Rishon Le'Zion, Chief Rabbi of Jerusalem, from 1665 until he died in 1689. The title Rishon l'Tzion ("the First of Zion"), a term from Isaiah 41:27, was a title that would from then on be traditionally conferred upon the Chief Sephardic Rabbi of Jerusalem and later of the Land of Israel, positions officially recognized by the central Ottoman authorities. To be noted until the early 19th century, Sephardic Jews had a strongly dominant presence in Jerusalem as well as in the rest of the Land of Israel. Therefore, the Chief Sephardic Rabbi of Jerusalem was, by extension, effectively the Chief Rabbi of the Land of Israel. It is known that R. Galante, like many rabbis of his time, was influenced by the Shabbatean movement for a while. In 1665, he went, with other rabbis, from Jerusalem to Gaza, where at the time R. Nathan of Gaza, later regarded as the false prophet of the false messiah Shabbetai Tzvi, lived. At the end of 1665, R. Galante was in Aleppo, and according to local accounts, he accompanied Shabbetai Tzvi to Smyrna and Constantinople. Eventually, and even before the apostasy of Shabbetai Tzvi to Islam in late 1666, R. Moshe Galante is said to have departed and condemned the movement. The immediate cause is cited as him having seen Shabbetai Tzvi signing a letter in which he not only wrote the four-letter name of G-d but did so applying it to himself. R. Moshe Galante wrote, among others books, Zevach HaShelamim [Peace Offering] on the Talmud, a harmonization of contradictory Biblical passages and of Biblical with Talmudical statements; Ḳorban Chagigah [Festival Offerings] sermons for the Three Festivals and insights on the tractate Chagigah and on Maimonides' Yad ha-Ḥazakah; and Parpara'ot l'Chochmah [Delicacies of wisdom] was a commentary on the Bible. In addition, he wrote Elef HaMagen [A Thousand Shieds], which includes 1,000 responses on various topics. In fact, he is often referred to as Rav HaMagen in reference to this work. R. Moshe Galante‘s students included R. Moshe ibn Habib [1654–1696], his brother-in-law who succeeded him as Rishon LeTzion, R. Chezekiah da Silva [1659–1698], author of Pri Chadash, R. Israel Yaakov Chagiz [1620-1674], his son-in-law and father of R. Moshe Chagiz [1672-c.1750], and R. Abraham Yitzchaki [1661–1729], who would also become Rishon LeTzion from 1709 to 1729. R. Moshe Galante died in Jerusalem in 1689 and is buried in the old Jewish cemetery of the Mount of Olives.
1839-1840
R. Yehuda Bibas is the first rabbi to be known to openly and strongly advocate the Jewish return to the Land of Israel, and he did so long before the formal establishment of the political Zionist movement. Despite his lack of any meaningful success in terms of actual Aliyah and his untimely death, R. Bibas’s ideas and efforts left an indelible mark. His pioneering ideas inspired many who later took up the cause of Jewish restoration in the Land of Israel. ——— R. Yehudah Bibas (1789-1852) was born in Gibraltar to a Sephardic family descending from Jews expelled from Spain in 1492. On his mother’s side, he was the grandson of the illustrious Moroccan rabbi Chayim ben Attar (1696–1743), known as the Or HaChayim after his most famous book. His father’s family was rooted in the Jewish community of Tetuán in Spanish Morocco. After his father's death, R. Bibas moved to Livorno, Italy, where he lived with his grandfather. Livorno, a vibrant hub of Jewish scholarship and culture, shaped his intellectual and spiritual growth. There, he pursued both religious and secular education, earning ordination as a rabbi and certification as a physician. In addition, he developed fluency in multiple languages, including English, Italian, Spanish, and Hebrew, which would eventually allow him to engage with very diverse audiences. Returning to Gibraltar, R. Bibas became a respected leader in the Jewish community and established a yeshiva that attracted students from across the Mediterranean. In 1810, he traveled to London, where he met Sir Moses Montefiore (1784-1885), a prominent Jewish philanthropist and supporter of Jewish resettlement in Palestine, with whom R. Bibas shared a vision of self-sustaining Jewish revival in the Land of Israel. From 1831 to 1850, R. Bibas served as the rabbi of the Jewish community on the island of Corfu, then part of the Venetian Republic and later under British control. During his tenure, he became deeply disillusioned with the Jewish situation in exile, which he viewed as a desecration of G-d’s name. He began advocating for mass Jewish immigration to the Land of Israel, seeing it as essential for both spiritual and national renewal. Living through the Greek War of Independence (1821–1832), R. Bibas witnessed the successful struggle of the Greeks against Ottoman rule and drew inspiration from their victory. Observing the weakening of the Ottoman Empire, he believed the time was ripe for Jewish self-determination. He proposed that Jews, like the Greeks, could rise and reclaim sovereignty in their ancestral homeland. His ideas were revolutionary for the time, yet he couched them in traditional Jewish terms, aligning them with religious teachings and emphasizing education as a key to national revival. Specifically, R. Bibas expanded the concept of Teshuvah (repentance or “return”) to include a collective return to the Land of Israel. He argued, based on Deuteronomy 30:1-11, that returning to Israel represented a national reconciliation with G-d, just as exile had been a result of the nation’s spiritual estrangement. This redefinition of Teshuvah became a cornerstone of his advocacy for Aliyah. Between 1839 and 1840, R. Bibas embarked on an extensive journey across Europe and North Africa, urging Jewish communities to support resettlement in Palestine. The timing of this journey is very telling as 1840 corresponded to the Hebrew year of 5600, and as such, was imbued with heightened messianic hopes of redemption His mission began in Corfu, traveling to Thessaloniki and then to Belgrade, where he met R. Yehudah Alkalai (1798-1878) in July 1839. During their discussions, R. Bibas cited the teachings of R. Eliyahu, the Vilna Gaon (1720–1797) on Aliyah and the establishment of Jewish settlements. Although R. Alkalai had already written his pioneering tract, Shema Yisrael, in 1832, advocating the return to the Land of Israel, this meeting significantly influenced his thinking. R. Bibas continued his travels, visiting Wallachia and Moldova, where he delivered speeches in cities like Raila and Bucharest. From there, he moved westward, visiting Vienna, Leipzig, Frankfurt, and London. In Livorno, he reconnected with acquaintances from his youth and began planning the next steps of his advocacy. In the winter of 1850, R. Bibas’s wife Rachel passed away, prompting him to accelerate his plans to settle in the Land of Israel. After announcing his resignation as rabbi of Corfu, he embarked on his journey to Palestine via Istanbul. On February 6, 1852, accompanied by two students, he arrived at the port of Jaffa. After spending some time in Jaffa and Jerusalem, R. Bibas settled in Hebron, where he established a yeshivah and built an extensive library. At the time, Hebron’s Jewish community consisted of about 500 people, and his arrival, along with his leadership and extraordinary library, were significant contributions to the city. Tragically, R. Bibas passed away just two months after he arrived in Hebron. He died unexpectedly while delivering a sermon in the synagogue and was buried in the Old Jewish Cemetery of Hebron. His writings were lost or destroyed, and with no surviving descendants, much of his legacy relies on his influence on others. Despite his untimely death, R. Bibas’s ideas and efforts left an indelible mark. His vision of a Jewish state rooted in both spiritual renewal and national sovereignty laid the foundation for modern political Zionism.
The 1700s
During the 1700s, Jerusalem was by far the city with the most important Jewish presence in the Land of Israel. This is true quantitatively. It is estimated that around the beginning of the 1700s, the Jewish population in Israel was about 2,000, with about 1500 living in Jerusalem. In turn, by 1800, estimates indicate a Jewish presence of about 7,500 people, of which 5,000 lived in Jerusalem. It is also true qualitatively. Of the 29 known yeshivot operating in the 1700s in the Land of Israel, 24 were located in Jerusalem. In what was a community of scholars, this is a highly significant statistic. Another significant aspect of Jewish life in Jerusalem in the 1700s was the dominant Sephardic presence. The Ashkenazic presence, which was at any rate small, ended in 1720 with their expulsion by the local rulers. The community was only re-established towards the end of the century with the arrival of followers of the Vilna Gaon. The following TIMELINE of Jerusalem in the 1700s is not intended to be comprehensive but rather illustrative. 1700-1750 1700 - Jerusalem was the leading Jewish center in the Land of Israel, and it had about 1500 Jews. 1700 - R. Yehudah HaChasid, from Poland, arrived in Jerusalem with about 1000 followers. 1702 - R. Rovigo of Modena, Italy, a great supporter of the Jews of Israel, settled in Jerusalem. 1702 - R. Raphael Mordechai Malki, a physician and community leader, died in Jerusalem. 1705 - Serious restrictions were imposed against the Jews of Jerusalem. 1708 - The sages of Jerusalem excommunicated R. Nechemia Chayun for his heretical Shabbatean views. 1720 - Arab mobs destroy the Yehudah HaChassid Synagogue and the Ashkenazi courtyard in Jerusalem. Early 1720s - The Sephardic community faced a severe financial crisis as it was held liable for the debts of the Ashkenazic community. 1724 - R. Chaim Yosef David Azulai was born in Jerusalem. c.1724 - R. Tuvia Cohen, aka Dr. Tobias Cohn, moves from Turkey to Jerusalem. 1727 - The Committee of Istanbul Officials for Jerusalem was established to coordinate the financial support of the Jewish community in Jerusalem. 1731 - Karaite Jews, mainly from Damascus, returned to Jerusalem. 1737 - R. Immanuel Rikki, an influential Kabbalist from Italy, moved to Jerusalem. 1737 - The Beth El Yeshiva in Jerusalem, with a unique focus on Jewish mysticism, started operations. 1738 - R. Moshe Chagiz returned to Jerusalem after forty years as an emissary in Europe. Late 1730s - R. Shalom Sharabi moved from Yemen to Jerusalem. 1742 - R. Chaim Ibn Attar from Morocco settled in Jerusalem. 1747 - The recently arrived chassidic leader, R. Gershon of Kitov, relocated from Hebron to Jerusalem. 1750-1799 1751 - R. Shalom Sharabi became the head of Yeshiva Bet El in Jerusalem. 1755 - R. Chaim Yosef David Azulai started his first mission abroad as an emissary on behalf of the Jewish communities. 1757 - R. Abraham Gershom of Kitov returns to Eastern Europe … to remarry. 1764 - A group of Chassidism led by R. Menahem Mendel of Peremyshlyany settled in Jerusalem. 1771 - The Mamluk ruler of Egypt, in alliance with Russia, temporarily took control of Jerusalem. 1773—The Jews of Livorno, Italy, are offered the opportunity to purchase Jerusalem from the Mamluk ruler of Egypt. 1780 - Rabbi David Pardo moves from Sarajevo to Jerusalem. 1782 - The Jewish Cemetery at the Mount of Olives faced new harsh measures. 1799 - The Jews of Jerusalem helped save the city from Napoleon's forces. 1799—Jerusalem continued to be the foremost Jewish center in the Land of Israel, now with about 5,000 Jews.
1780
Hailing from an Iberian family, R. David Pardo moved to Jerusalem in 1780 after serving for decades in several communities in the Balkans. R. Pardo distinguished himself by a unique focus on the literature of the period of the Tannaim, that is, the period until the end of the second century of the Common Era.